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Conquistador's Wake: Tracking the Legacy of Hernando de Soto in the Indigenous Southeast. DENNIS B. BLANTON. 2020. University of Georgia Press, Athens. xv + 256 pp. $29.99 (paperback), ISBN 978-0-8203-5635-8.
- Marvin T. Smith
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- American Antiquity / Volume 85 / Issue 3 / July 2020
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- 05 May 2020, pp. 612-613
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- July 2020
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- By Rose Teteki Abbey, K. C. Abraham, David Tuesday Adamo, LeRoy H. Aden, Efrain Agosto, Victor Aguilan, Gillian T. W. Ahlgren, Charanjit Kaur AjitSingh, Dorothy B E A Akoto, Giuseppe Alberigo, Daniel E. Albrecht, Ruth Albrecht, Daniel O. Aleshire, Urs Altermatt, Anand Amaladass, Michael Amaladoss, James N. Amanze, Lesley G. Anderson, Thomas C. Anderson, Victor Anderson, Hope S. Antone, María Pilar Aquino, Paula Arai, Victorio Araya Guillén, S. Wesley Ariarajah, Ellen T. Armour, Brett Gregory Armstrong, Atsuhiro Asano, Naim Stifan Ateek, Mahmoud Ayoub, John Alembillah Azumah, Mercedes L. García Bachmann, Irena Backus, J. Wayne Baker, Mieke Bal, Lewis V. Baldwin, William Barbieri, António Barbosa da Silva, David Basinger, Bolaji Olukemi Bateye, Oswald Bayer, Daniel H. Bays, Rosalie Beck, Nancy Elizabeth Bedford, Guy-Thomas Bedouelle, Chorbishop Seely Beggiani, Wolfgang Behringer, Christopher M. Bellitto, Byard Bennett, Harold V. Bennett, Teresa Berger, Miguel A. Bernad, Henley Bernard, Alan E. Bernstein, Jon L. Berquist, Johannes Beutler, Ana María Bidegain, Matthew P. Binkewicz, Jennifer Bird, Joseph Blenkinsopp, Dmytro Bondarenko, Paulo Bonfatti, Riet en Pim Bons-Storm, Jessica A. Boon, Marcus J. Borg, Mark Bosco, Peter C. Bouteneff, François Bovon, William D. Bowman, Paul S. Boyer, David Brakke, Richard E. Brantley, Marcus Braybrooke, Ian Breward, Ênio José da Costa Brito, Jewel Spears Brooker, Johannes Brosseder, Nicholas Canfield Read Brown, Robert F. Brown, Pamela K. Brubaker, Walter Brueggemann, Bishop Colin O. Buchanan, Stanley M. Burgess, Amy Nelson Burnett, J. Patout Burns, David B. Burrell, David Buttrick, James P. Byrd, Lavinia Byrne, Gerado Caetano, Marcos Caldas, Alkiviadis Calivas, William J. Callahan, Salvatore Calomino, Euan K. Cameron, William S. Campbell, Marcelo Ayres Camurça, Daniel F. Caner, Paul E. Capetz, Carlos F. Cardoza-Orlandi, Patrick W. Carey, Barbara Carvill, Hal Cauthron, Subhadra Mitra Channa, Mark D. Chapman, James H. Charlesworth, Kenneth R. Chase, Chen Zemin, Luciano Chianeque, Philip Chia Phin Yin, Francisca H. Chimhanda, Daniel Chiquete, John T. Chirban, Soobin Choi, Robert Choquette, Mita Choudhury, Gerald Christianson, John Chryssavgis, Sejong Chun, Esther Chung-Kim, Charles M. A. Clark, Elizabeth A. Clark, Sathianathan Clarke, Fred Cloud, John B. Cobb, W. Owen Cole, John A Coleman, John J. Collins, Sylvia Collins-Mayo, Paul K. Conkin, Beth A. Conklin, Sean Connolly, Demetrios J. Constantelos, Michael A. Conway, Paula M. Cooey, Austin Cooper, Michael L. Cooper-White, Pamela Cooper-White, L. William Countryman, Sérgio Coutinho, Pamela Couture, Shannon Craigo-Snell, James L. Crenshaw, David Crowner, Humberto Horacio Cucchetti, Lawrence S. Cunningham, Elizabeth Mason Currier, Emmanuel Cutrone, Mary L. Daniel, David D. Daniels, Robert Darden, Rolf Darge, Isaiah Dau, Jeffry C. Davis, Jane Dawson, Valentin Dedji, John W. de Gruchy, Paul DeHart, Wendy J. Deichmann Edwards, Miguel A. De La Torre, George E. Demacopoulos, Thomas de Mayo, Leah DeVun, Beatriz de Vasconcellos Dias, Dennis C. Dickerson, John M. Dillon, Luis Miguel Donatello, Igor Dorfmann-Lazarev, Susanna Drake, Jonathan A. Draper, N. Dreher Martin, Otto Dreydoppel, Angelyn Dries, A. J. Droge, Francis X. D'Sa, Marilyn Dunn, Nicole Wilkinson Duran, Rifaat Ebied, Mark J. Edwards, William H. Edwards, Leonard H. Ehrlich, Nancy L. Eiesland, Martin Elbel, J. Harold Ellens, Stephen Ellingson, Marvin M. Ellison, Robert Ellsberg, Jean Bethke Elshtain, Eldon Jay Epp, Peter C. Erb, Tassilo Erhardt, Maria Erling, Noel Leo Erskine, Gillian R. Evans, Virginia Fabella, Michael A. Fahey, Edward Farley, Margaret A. Farley, Wendy Farley, Robert Fastiggi, Seena Fazel, Duncan S. Ferguson, Helwar Figueroa, Paul Corby Finney, Kyriaki Karidoyanes FitzGerald, Thomas E. FitzGerald, John R. Fitzmier, Marie Therese Flanagan, Sabina Flanagan, Claude Flipo, Ronald B. Flowers, Carole Fontaine, David Ford, Mary Ford, Stephanie A. Ford, Jim Forest, William Franke, Robert M. Franklin, Ruth Franzén, Edward H. Friedman, Samuel Frouisou, Lorelei F. Fuchs, Jojo M. Fung, Inger Furseth, Richard R. Gaillardetz, Brandon Gallaher, China Galland, Mark Galli, Ismael García, Tharscisse Gatwa, Jean-Marie Gaudeul, Luis María Gavilanes del Castillo, Pavel L. Gavrilyuk, Volney P. Gay, Metropolitan Athanasios Geevargis, Kondothra M. George, Mary Gerhart, Simon Gikandi, Maurice Gilbert, Michael J. Gillgannon, Verónica Giménez Beliveau, Terryl Givens, Beth Glazier-McDonald, Philip Gleason, Menghun Goh, Brian Golding, Bishop Hilario M. Gomez, Michelle A. Gonzalez, Donald K. Gorrell, Roy Gottfried, Tamara Grdzelidze, Joel B. Green, Niels Henrik Gregersen, Cristina Grenholm, Herbert Griffiths, Eric W. Gritsch, Erich S. Gruen, Christoffer H. Grundmann, Paul H. Gundani, Jon P. Gunnemann, Petre Guran, Vidar L. Haanes, Jeremiah M. Hackett, Getatchew Haile, Douglas John Hall, Nicholas Hammond, Daphne Hampson, Jehu J. Hanciles, Barry Hankins, Jennifer Haraguchi, Stanley S. Harakas, Anthony John Harding, Conrad L. Harkins, J. William Harmless, Marjory Harper, Amir Harrak, Joel F. Harrington, Mark W. Harris, Susan Ashbrook Harvey, Van A. Harvey, R. Chris Hassel, Jione Havea, Daniel Hawk, Diana L. Hayes, Leslie Hayes, Priscilla Hayner, S. Mark Heim, Simo Heininen, Richard P. Heitzenrater, Eila Helander, David Hempton, Scott H. Hendrix, Jan-Olav Henriksen, Gina Hens-Piazza, Carter Heyward, Nicholas J. Higham, David Hilliard, Norman A. Hjelm, Peter C. Hodgson, Arthur Holder, M. Jan Holton, Dwight N. Hopkins, Ronnie Po-chia Hsia, Po-Ho Huang, James Hudnut-Beumler, Jennifer S. Hughes, Leonard M. Hummel, Mary E. Hunt, Laennec Hurbon, Mark Hutchinson, Susan E. Hylen, Mary Beth Ingham, H. Larry Ingle, Dale T. Irvin, Jon Isaak, Paul John Isaak, Ada María Isasi-Díaz, Hans Raun Iversen, Margaret C. Jacob, Arthur James, Maria Jansdotter-Samuelsson, David Jasper, Werner G. Jeanrond, Renée Jeffery, David Lyle Jeffrey, Theodore W. Jennings, David H. Jensen, Robin Margaret Jensen, David Jobling, Dale A. Johnson, Elizabeth A. Johnson, Maxwell E. Johnson, Sarah Johnson, Mark D. Johnston, F. Stanley Jones, James William Jones, John R. Jones, Alissa Jones Nelson, Inge Jonsson, Jan Joosten, Elizabeth Judd, Mulambya Peggy Kabonde, Robert Kaggwa, Sylvester Kahakwa, Isaac Kalimi, Ogbu U. Kalu, Eunice Kamaara, Wayne C. Kannaday, Musimbi Kanyoro, Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, Frank Kaufmann, Léon Nguapitshi Kayongo, Richard Kearney, Alice A. Keefe, Ralph Keen, Catherine Keller, Anthony J. Kelly, Karen Kennelly, Kathi Lynn Kern, Fergus Kerr, Edward Kessler, George Kilcourse, Heup Young Kim, Kim Sung-Hae, Kim Yong-Bock, Kim Yung Suk, Richard King, Thomas M. King, Robert M. Kingdon, Ross Kinsler, Hans G. Kippenberg, Cheryl A. Kirk-Duggan, Clifton Kirkpatrick, Leonid Kishkovsky, Nadieszda Kizenko, Jeffrey Klaiber, Hans-Josef Klauck, Sidney Knight, Samuel Kobia, Robert Kolb, Karla Ann Koll, Heikki Kotila, Donald Kraybill, Philip D. W. Krey, Yves Krumenacker, Jeffrey Kah-Jin Kuan, Simanga R. Kumalo, Peter Kuzmic, Simon Shui-Man Kwan, Kwok Pui-lan, André LaCocque, Stephen E. Lahey, John Tsz Pang Lai, Emiel Lamberts, Armando Lampe, Craig Lampe, Beverly J. Lanzetta, Eve LaPlante, Lizette Larson-Miller, Ariel Bybee Laughton, Leonard Lawlor, Bentley Layton, Robin A. Leaver, Karen Lebacqz, Archie Chi Chung Lee, Marilyn J. Legge, Hervé LeGrand, D. L. LeMahieu, Raymond Lemieux, Bill J. Leonard, Ellen M. Leonard, Outi Leppä, Jean Lesaulnier, Nantawan Boonprasat Lewis, Henrietta Leyser, Alexei Lidov, Bernard Lightman, Paul Chang-Ha Lim, Carter Lindberg, Mark R. Lindsay, James R. Linville, James C. Livingston, Ann Loades, David Loades, Jean-Claude Loba-Mkole, Lo Lung Kwong, Wati Longchar, Eleazar López, David W. Lotz, Andrew Louth, Robin W. Lovin, William Luis, Frank D. Macchia, Diarmaid N. J. MacCulloch, Kirk R. MacGregor, Marjory A. MacLean, Donald MacLeod, Tomas S. Maddela, Inge Mager, Laurenti Magesa, David G. Maillu, Fortunato Mallimaci, Philip Mamalakis, Kä Mana, Ukachukwu Chris Manus, Herbert Robinson Marbury, Reuel Norman Marigza, Jacqueline Mariña, Antti Marjanen, Luiz C. L. Marques, Madipoane Masenya (ngwan'a Mphahlele), Caleb J. D. Maskell, Steve Mason, Thomas Massaro, Fernando Matamoros Ponce, András Máté-Tóth, Odair Pedroso Mateus, Dinis Matsolo, Fumitaka Matsuoka, John D'Arcy May, Yelena Mazour-Matusevich, Theodore Mbazumutima, John S. McClure, Christian McConnell, Lee Martin McDonald, Gary B. McGee, Thomas McGowan, Alister E. McGrath, Richard J. McGregor, John A. McGuckin, Maud Burnett McInerney, Elsie Anne McKee, Mary B. McKinley, James F. McMillan, Ernan McMullin, Kathleen E. McVey, M. Douglas Meeks, Monica Jyotsna Melanchthon, Ilie Melniciuc-Puica, Everett Mendoza, Raymond A. Mentzer, William W. Menzies, Ina Merdjanova, Franziska Metzger, Constant J. Mews, Marvin Meyer, Carol Meyers, Vasile Mihoc, Gunner Bjerg Mikkelsen, Maria Inêz de Castro Millen, Clyde Lee Miller, Bonnie J. Miller-McLemore, Alexander Mirkovic, Paul Misner, Nozomu Miyahira, R. W. L. Moberly, Gerald Moede, Aloo Osotsi Mojola, Sunanda Mongia, Rebeca Montemayor, James Moore, Roger E. Moore, Craig E. Morrison O.Carm, Jeffry H. Morrison, Keith Morrison, Wilson J. Moses, Tefetso Henry Mothibe, Mokgethi Motlhabi, Fulata Moyo, Henry Mugabe, Jesse Ndwiga Kanyua Mugambi, Peggy Mulambya-Kabonde, Robert Bruce Mullin, Pamela Mullins Reaves, Saskia Murk Jansen, Heleen L. Murre-Van den Berg, Augustine Musopole, Isaac M. T. Mwase, Philomena Mwaura, Cecilia Nahnfeldt, Anne Nasimiyu Wasike, Carmiña Navia Velasco, Thulani Ndlazi, Alexander Negrov, James B. Nelson, David G. Newcombe, Carol Newsom, Helen J. Nicholson, George W. E. Nickelsburg, Tatyana Nikolskaya, Damayanthi M. A. Niles, Bertil Nilsson, Nyambura Njoroge, Fidelis Nkomazana, Mary Beth Norton, Christian Nottmeier, Sonene Nyawo, Anthère Nzabatsinda, Edward T. Oakes, Gerald O'Collins, Daniel O'Connell, David W. Odell-Scott, Mercy Amba Oduyoye, Kathleen O'Grady, Oyeronke Olajubu, Thomas O'Loughlin, Dennis T. Olson, J. Steven O'Malley, Cephas N. Omenyo, Muriel Orevillo-Montenegro, César Augusto Ornellas Ramos, Agbonkhianmeghe E. Orobator, Kenan B. Osborne, Carolyn Osiek, Javier Otaola Montagne, Douglas F. Ottati, Anna May Say Pa, Irina Paert, Jerry G. Pankhurst, Aristotle Papanikolaou, Samuele F. Pardini, Stefano Parenti, Peter Paris, Sung Bae Park, Cristián G. Parker, Raquel Pastor, Joseph Pathrapankal, Daniel Patte, W. Brown Patterson, Clive Pearson, Keith F. Pecklers, Nancy Cardoso Pereira, David Horace Perkins, Pheme Perkins, Edward N. Peters, Rebecca Todd Peters, Bishop Yeznik Petrossian, Raymond Pfister, Peter C. Phan, Isabel Apawo Phiri, William S. F. Pickering, Derrick G. Pitard, William Elvis Plata, Zlatko Plese, John Plummer, James Newton Poling, Ronald Popivchak, Andrew Porter, Ute Possekel, James M. Powell, Enos Das Pradhan, Devadasan Premnath, Jaime Adrían Prieto Valladares, Anne Primavesi, Randall Prior, María Alicia Puente Lutteroth, Eduardo Guzmão Quadros, Albert Rabil, Laurent William Ramambason, Apolonio M. Ranche, Vololona Randriamanantena Andriamitandrina, Lawrence R. Rast, Paul L. Redditt, Adele Reinhartz, Rolf Rendtorff, Pål Repstad, James N. Rhodes, John K. Riches, Joerg Rieger, Sharon H. Ringe, Sandra Rios, Tyler Roberts, David M. Robinson, James M. Robinson, Joanne Maguire Robinson, Richard A. H. Robinson, Roy R. Robson, Jack B. Rogers, Maria Roginska, Sidney Rooy, Rev. Garnett Roper, Maria José Fontelas Rosado-Nunes, Andrew C. Ross, Stefan Rossbach, François Rossier, John D. Roth, John K. Roth, Phillip Rothwell, Richard E. Rubenstein, Rosemary Radford Ruether, Markku Ruotsila, John E. Rybolt, Risto Saarinen, John Saillant, Juan Sanchez, Wagner Lopes Sanchez, Hugo N. Santos, Gerhard Sauter, Gloria L. Schaab, Sandra M. Schneiders, Quentin J. Schultze, Fernando F. Segovia, Turid Karlsen Seim, Carsten Selch Jensen, Alan P. F. Sell, Frank C. Senn, Kent Davis Sensenig, Damían Setton, Bal Krishna Sharma, Carolyn J. Sharp, Thomas Sheehan, N. Gerald Shenk, Christian Sheppard, Charles Sherlock, Tabona Shoko, Walter B. Shurden, Marguerite Shuster, B. Mark Sietsema, Batara Sihombing, Neil Silberman, Clodomiro Siller, Samuel Silva-Gotay, Heikki Silvet, John K. Simmons, Hagith Sivan, James C. Skedros, Abraham Smith, Ashley A. Smith, Ted A. Smith, Daud Soesilo, Pia Søltoft, Choan-Seng (C. S.) Song, Kathryn Spink, Bryan Spinks, Eric O. Springsted, Nicolas Standaert, Brian Stanley, Glen H. Stassen, Karel Steenbrink, Stephen J. Stein, Andrea Sterk, Gregory E. Sterling, Columba Stewart, Jacques Stewart, Robert B. Stewart, Cynthia Stokes Brown, Ken Stone, Anne Stott, Elizabeth Stuart, Monya Stubbs, Marjorie Hewitt Suchocki, David Kwang-sun Suh, Scott W. Sunquist, Keith Suter, Douglas Sweeney, Charles H. Talbert, Shawqi N. Talia, Elsa Tamez, Joseph B. Tamney, Jonathan Y. Tan, Yak-Hwee Tan, Kathryn Tanner, Feiya Tao, Elizabeth S. Tapia, Aquiline Tarimo, Claire Taylor, Mark Lewis Taylor, Bishop Abba Samuel Wolde Tekestebirhan, Eugene TeSelle, M. Thomas Thangaraj, David R. Thomas, Andrew Thornley, Scott Thumma, Marcelo Timotheo da Costa, George E. “Tink” Tinker, Ola Tjørhom, Karen Jo Torjesen, Iain R. Torrance, Fernando Torres-Londoño, Archbishop Demetrios [Trakatellis], Marit Trelstad, Christine Trevett, Phyllis Trible, Johannes Tromp, Paul Turner, Robert G. Tuttle, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Peter Tyler, Anders Tyrberg, Justin Ukpong, Javier Ulloa, Camillus Umoh, Kristi Upson-Saia, Martina Urban, Monica Uribe, Elochukwu Eugene Uzukwu, Richard Vaggione, Gabriel Vahanian, Paul Valliere, T. J. Van Bavel, Steven Vanderputten, Peter Van der Veer, Huub Van de Sandt, Louis Van Tongeren, Luke A. Veronis, Noel Villalba, Ramón Vinke, Tim Vivian, David Voas, Elena Volkova, Katharina von Kellenbach, Elina Vuola, Timothy Wadkins, Elaine M. Wainwright, Randi Jones Walker, Dewey D. Wallace, Jerry Walls, Michael J. Walsh, Philip Walters, Janet Walton, Jonathan L. Walton, Wang Xiaochao, Patricia A. Ward, David Harrington Watt, Herold D. Weiss, Laurence L. Welborn, Sharon D. Welch, Timothy Wengert, Traci C. West, Merold Westphal, David Wetherell, Barbara Wheeler, Carolinne White, Jean-Paul Wiest, Frans Wijsen, Terry L. Wilder, Felix Wilfred, Rebecca Wilkin, Daniel H. Williams, D. Newell Williams, Michael A. Williams, Vincent L. Wimbush, Gabriele Winkler, Anders Winroth, Lauri Emílio Wirth, James A. Wiseman, Ebba Witt-Brattström, Teofil Wojciechowski, John Wolffe, Kenman L. Wong, Wong Wai Ching, Linda Woodhead, Wendy M. Wright, Rose Wu, Keith E. Yandell, Gale A. Yee, Viktor Yelensky, Yeo Khiok-Khng, Gustav K. K. Yeung, Angela Yiu, Amos Yong, Yong Ting Jin, You Bin, Youhanna Nessim Youssef, Eliana Yunes, Robert Michael Zaller, Valarie H. Ziegler, Barbara Brown Zikmund, Joyce Ann Zimmerman, Aurora Zlotnik, Zhuo Xinping
- Edited by Daniel Patte, Vanderbilt University, Tennessee
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- The Cambridge Dictionary of Christianity
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- 05 August 2012
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- 20 September 2010, pp xi-xliv
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Fostering Disaster Resilient Communities across the Globe through the Incorporation of Safe and Resilient Hospitals for Community-Integrated Disaster Responses
- Joseph Albanese, Marvin Birnbaum, Christopher Cannon, Joseph Cappiello, Elaine Chapman, James Paturas, Stewart Smith
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- Prehospital and Disaster Medicine / Volume 23 / Issue 5 / October 2008
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 28 June 2012, pp. 385-390
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- October 2008
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Events due to natural and technological hazards result in damage to living beings and the natural and built environment. The high urban population density, level of development, and extent of poverty in many disaster-prone areas further exacerbate the cumulative impact of such catastrophes. Also, crises, including those created by earthquakes, hurricanes, landslides, and tsunamis, have underscored the inability of hospitals to provide uninterrupted, urgently needed health services and maintain structural integrity. In many instances, deaths of hospital occupants were the direct result of collapsing physical infrastructure. In response and recognition of the need for collaborative efforts to mitigate the damages and loss of function, international public health, humanitarian, and relief organizations such as the Pan-American Health Organization (WHO/PAHO), the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) of the United Nations, the World Bank, the Joint Commission International (JCI), and the World Association for Disaster and Emergency Medicine (WADEM) have sponsored a series of global forums intent on developing guidelines for designing, constructing, and evaluating “safe and resilient” hospitals. The underlying goals of these guidelines are to protect the lives of patients, staff, and other hospital occupants, and ensure that hospitals continue to function during and after a catastrophic event.
3 - Characteristics of Gang Members
- Terence P. Thornberry, State University of New York, Albany, Marvin D. Krohn, State University of New York, Albany, Alan J. Lizotte, State University of New York, Albany, Carolyn A. Smith, State University of New York, Albany, Kimberly Tobin, Westfield State College, Massachusetts
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- Gangs and Delinquency in Developmental Perspective
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- 23 July 2009
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- 23 December 2002, pp 32-55
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Summary
To begin our study of gang membership, we examine the prevalence and duration of gang membership for the total sample of the Rochester Youth Development Study and for its major demographic subgroups, compare gang members and nonmembers in terms of delinquent behavior, and then assess the proportionate contribution of gang members to the overall volume of crime.
The Prevalence of Gang Membership
Ever Prevalence
The prevalence of being a gang member at any point up to Wave 9, which essentially covers the high school years, is 30.9% of the total sample (Table 3.1). Thus, although most (69.1%) in this urban sample were not gang members, gang membership is not rare.
This prevalence rate is rather high when comparisons are made with results in other studies. For example, Klein (1971) estimated that in the four geographical areas covered by his study only about 6% of the gang-age youths in those areas were actually gang members. A similar approach, with similar results, has been used by other field researchers – for example, Moore (1978) and Vigil (1988). In a survey of eighth graders in 11 American cities, Esbensen and Winfree (1998) found that 11.8% of the respondents were gang members. Our estimate, based on a measure of lifetime prevalence rather than a point estimate or annual rate, highlights the importance of looking at gang membership as a trajectory that unfolds with age.
7 - Gangs, Guns, and Crime
- Terence P. Thornberry, State University of New York, Albany, Marvin D. Krohn, State University of New York, Albany, Alan J. Lizotte, State University of New York, Albany, Carolyn A. Smith, State University of New York, Albany, Kimberly Tobin, Westfield State College, Massachusetts
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- Gangs and Delinquency in Developmental Perspective
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- 23 July 2009
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- 23 December 2002, pp 122-139
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the previous analysis indicates that gang membership facilitates a broad range of delinquent behaviors including violence, drug use, and drug sales. When boys join gangs their delinquency increases and when they leave gangs their delinquency decreases. Here we focus on a related form of illegal behavior: owning and carrying illegal firearms. In particular, we are interested in the interplay between gang membership and patterns of owning and carrying guns. There are three general analytic questions. First, do gangs recruit those who carry illegal guns prior to gang membership, does gang membership enhance gun carrying, or are both processes at work? Second, do former gang members continue carrying guns as a result of their gang experience? Finally, what is the joint impact of gang membership and gun involvement on delinquency, drug use, and drug sales? Because research has shown that illegal gun carriers are more active in criminal activity (Lizotte et al., 2000) and that gang members show higher levels of criminal activity (Chapter 6), we hypothesize that gang members who also carry guns will have higher levels of criminal activity than one would predict from either factor alone. We conduct all these analyses for two types of illegal gun carriers: those who carry illegal guns but do not own them, and those who carry illegal guns that they own. The distinction is important, especially at these ages and especially for gang members.
4 - The Antecedents of Gang Membership
- Terence P. Thornberry, State University of New York, Albany, Marvin D. Krohn, State University of New York, Albany, Alan J. Lizotte, State University of New York, Albany, Carolyn A. Smith, State University of New York, Albany, Kimberly Tobin, Westfield State College, Massachusetts
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- Gangs and Delinquency in Developmental Perspective
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- 23 July 2009
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- 23 December 2002, pp 56-76
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having provided a description of gang members by examining their demographic characteristics, we now extend this description considerably by identifying risk factors for gang membership. After examining how antecedent characteristics and attributes affect the likelihood that an individual will join a gang, we examine the ability of these same risk factors to distinguish transient from stable gang members. Following these bivariate analyses, we turn to multivariate models and examine how experiencing multiple risk affects the odds of joining a street gang.
A Risk Factor Approach
Risk factors are “individual or environmental hazards that increase an individual's vulnerability to negative developmental outcomes” (Small and Luster, 1994: 182; see also Farrington, 2000; Werner and Smith, 1982). Consistent with the multidimensionality of the life-course approach, risk factor models assume that there are multiple, and often overlapping, risk factors in an individual's background that lead to adverse outcomes. In the terms of developmental psychopathology, outcomes are characterized by equifinality, or multiple pathways to the same outcome (Cicchetti and Rogosch, 1996). Furthermore, this approach assumes that cumulative risk, that is, risk that occurs in many different life domains, is most strongly related to adversity (Werner and Smith, 1982).
Identifying risk factors, especially those that occur early in the life course, has several theoretical and practical advantages (Farrington, 2000). Theoretically, identifying factors that increase risk suggests fruitful areas for exploration in more formal causal analyses. It also helps in isolating variables that mediate or translate increased vulnerability into actually experiencing the outcome.
6 - Gangs as a Facilitating Context for Delinquent Behavior
- Terence P. Thornberry, State University of New York, Albany, Marvin D. Krohn, State University of New York, Albany, Alan J. Lizotte, State University of New York, Albany, Carolyn A. Smith, State University of New York, Albany, Kimberly Tobin, Westfield State College, Massachusetts
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- Gangs and Delinquency in Developmental Perspective
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- 23 July 2009
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- 23 December 2002, pp 96-121
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Up to this point the analysis has focused on the antecedents of gang membership, examining risk factors for and causal processes associated with joining a gang. Now we examine whether membership in a juvenile street gang alters the short-term behavior patterns and the long-term life-course development of gang members. The first set of issues we address concerns the extent to which the gang actually facilitates various forms of deviant behavior.
In Chapter 3 we demonstrated that gang members in Rochester have significantly higher rates of delinquency than nonmembers. This finding confirms results from earlier observational studies (Hagedorn, 1998; Klein, 1971; Miller, 1966; Moore, 1978; Taylor, 1990), from studies using official data (Cohen, 1969; Klein et al., 1986; Maxson and Klein, 1990), and from those using survey techniques (Fagan, 1989, 1990; Fagan et al., 1986; Short and Strodtbeck, 1965; Tracy, 1979). We also demonstrated that gang members account for a disproportionate share of the crime problem relative to their representation in the general population. Because gangs clearly connote groups that have a deviant or criminal orientation, a strong relationship between gang membership and high rates of involvement in delinquency and drug use is hardly surprising. What these studies do not identify, however, are the social processes that bring about the association between gang membership and higher rates of delinquency. As Fagan has noted, “it is uncertain whether the differences reflect the positive correlation between group crime and violence, features of the gang itself, or the state of social controls in the inner cities where gangs are most evident” (1990: 186).
9 - Long-Term Consequences of Gang Membership
- Terence P. Thornberry, State University of New York, Albany, Marvin D. Krohn, State University of New York, Albany, Alan J. Lizotte, State University of New York, Albany, Carolyn A. Smith, State University of New York, Albany, Kimberly Tobin, Westfield State College, Massachusetts
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- Gangs and Delinquency in Developmental Perspective
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- 23 July 2009
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- 23 December 2002, pp 163-180
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gangs have a powerful, contemporaneous effect on the lives of the adolescents who become involved with them. It is also reasonable to expect that gang membership will have long-term consequences as well, interfering with the normal course of adolescent development and affecting the transition to adult roles and statuses. Although reasonable, there has been surprisingly little research conducted in this area. As early as 1971 Klein commented that “Though the need is great, there has been no careful study of gang members as they move on into adult status” (1971: 136), a view more recently advanced by Hagedorn (1998) and by Decker and Lauritsen (1996). In this chapter we examine whether adolescent involvement in street gangs has long-term consequences in such important developmental areas as family formation, parenthood, and employment. We begin by introducing basic concepts from the life-course perspective to guide the analysis.
Life-Course Perspective
The life-course perspective recognizes that as people age they enter and move along various trajectories. Trajectories are age-graded patterns of development with respect to major social institutions such as family, school, and work. They capture the long view of development, “linking social and psychological states over a substantial portion of the life span” (Elder, 1997: 955). Short-term changes in the life course, including movement into and out of trajectories, are referred to as transitions.
One of the most volatile stages of human development occurs as individuals move from adolescence to adulthood.
2 - Research Procedures: The Sample and the Data
- Terence P. Thornberry, State University of New York, Albany, Marvin D. Krohn, State University of New York, Albany, Alan J. Lizotte, State University of New York, Albany, Carolyn A. Smith, State University of New York, Albany, Kimberly Tobin, Westfield State College, Massachusetts
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- Gangs and Delinquency in Developmental Perspective
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- 23 July 2009
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- 23 December 2002, pp 11-31
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to examine the origins and aftermath of membership in juvenile street gangs, we rely on data from the Rochester Youth Development Study, an ongoing, longitudinal investigation of antisocial behavior. This study, which began in 1986 with funding from the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, focused on the causes and correlates of serious, violent, and chronic delinquency. The study of gangs is just one aspect of this broader research initiative, but one that is very central to the core aims of the study. In this chapter we introduce the reader to the design of the Rochester study and describe the study's sample and measures, especially as they focus on issues related to gangs and gang membership.
The Rochester Youth Development Study
The Rochester Youth Development Study follows a panel of juveniles from their early teenage years through their early adult years. Figure 2.1 depicts the overall research design of the study. To date, we have collected 12 waves of data spanning the ages of 13 through 22.
Each subject and a primary caretaker (in the vast majority of cases this is the biological mother) were interviewed at six-month intervals from the spring of 1988 until the spring of 1992. After a two-year gap in data collection, annual interviews began in 1994. By the end of Wave 12 in the spring of 1997, we had reinterviewed 846 of the initial 1,000 subjects in the study, a retention rate of 85%.
5 - The Origins of Gang Membership
- Terence P. Thornberry, State University of New York, Albany, Marvin D. Krohn, State University of New York, Albany, Alan J. Lizotte, State University of New York, Albany, Carolyn A. Smith, State University of New York, Albany, Kimberly Tobin, Westfield State College, Massachusetts
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Summary
the results of the risk factor analyses are descriptively informative, but they are also theoretically limited. A risk factor approach provides a somewhat atomized view of gang members that is focused on individual variables; it fails to identify the causal processes by which more distal variables lead to more proximal variables and how they, in turn, lead to outcomes of interest. Indeed, as Farrington has noted, “a major problem with the risk factor prevention paradigm is to determine which risk factors are causes and which are merely markers or correlated with causes. It is also important to establish processes or developmental pathways that intervene between risk factors and outcomes, and to bridge the gap between risk factor research and more complex explanatory theories” (2000: 7). In this chapter we begin to address the general topic of identifying the causes of gang membership. The central question is, Why do some youths join street gangs while others manage to avoid the lure of the gang?
We address this question using two complementary approaches. The first approach is more qualitative and is based on the perceptions of the gang members. We asked them why they joined the gang and these open-ended responses provide information on their perceptions of the more immediate influences that led to their decision. The second approach is based in the tradition of causal modeling.
About the Authors
- Terence P. Thornberry, State University of New York, Albany, Marvin D. Krohn, State University of New York, Albany, Alan J. Lizotte, State University of New York, Albany, Carolyn A. Smith, State University of New York, Albany, Kimberly Tobin, Westfield State College, Massachusetts
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Appendix B: Prevalence of Gang Membership
- Terence P. Thornberry, State University of New York, Albany, Marvin D. Krohn, State University of New York, Albany, Alan J. Lizotte, State University of New York, Albany, Carolyn A. Smith, State University of New York, Albany, Kimberly Tobin, Westfield State College, Massachusetts
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Gangs and Delinquency in Developmental Perspective
- Terence P. Thornberry, Marvin D. Krohn, Alan J. Lizotte, Carolyn A. Smith, Kimberly Tobin
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Gang membership has long been understood to have a disruptive influence on adolescent development and to contribute disproportionately to the rate of delinquent crime. The nature of the impact, and the long-term effects on individuals, have not been well understood. This book uses longitudinal data to examine the developmental consequences of gang membership, and its longer term influence on the life course. This longitudinal approach is made possible by data from a study of antisocial behavior, The Rochester Youth Development Study, which followed one thousand adolescents through their early adult years. The subjects include delinquents who were gang members and others who were not, allowing the authors to compare motives, patterns of behavior, and recurring problems with caregivers and the law, education, peer relations, and career paths. The findings indicate that multiple developmental deficits lead to gang membership and that membership leads to an increase in delinquency.
Contents
- Terence P. Thornberry, State University of New York, Albany, Marvin D. Krohn, State University of New York, Albany, Alan J. Lizotte, State University of New York, Albany, Carolyn A. Smith, State University of New York, Albany, Kimberly Tobin, Westfield State College, Massachusetts
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1 - A Life-Course Orientation to the Study of Gang Membership
- Terence P. Thornberry, State University of New York, Albany, Marvin D. Krohn, State University of New York, Albany, Alan J. Lizotte, State University of New York, Albany, Carolyn A. Smith, State University of New York, Albany, Kimberly Tobin, Westfield State College, Massachusetts
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Summary
since the earliest days of gang research, such as the classic study of 1,313 gangs in Chicago conducted by Thrasher (1927), scholars have noted the disproportionate contribution that gang members make to the level of crime in society. Indeed, the observation that gang members, as compared with other youths, are more extensively involved in delinquency – especially serious and violent delinquency – is perhaps the most robust and consistent observation in criminological research.
This observation has been made across time, geographical and national boundaries, and methods of data collection. Observational studies indicate that gang members are heavily involved in various forms of delinquent activities. This finding has been reported in the early research of Spergel (1964), Miller (1966), and Klein (1971), as well as in more recent observational studies, such as those by Moore (1978), Horowitz (1983), Vigil (1988), Taylor (1990), Decker and Van Winkle (1996), and Hagedorn (1998). Studies that rely on official data to compare gang members and nonmembers have also found a strong association between gang membership and delinquent activity (see Cohen, 1969; Huff, 1996; Klein, Gordon, and Maxson, 1986; Klein and Maxson, 1989). Finally, survey research studies report higher rates of involvement in delinquency for gang members as compared with nonmembers. These surveys include Short and Strodtbeck's (1965) study of Chicago gangs, as well as the work by Tracy (1979), Fagan, Piper, and Moore (1986), Fagan (1989, 1990), Huff (1996), and Esbensen and Winfree (1998).
List of Tables and Figures
- Terence P. Thornberry, State University of New York, Albany, Marvin D. Krohn, State University of New York, Albany, Alan J. Lizotte, State University of New York, Albany, Carolyn A. Smith, State University of New York, Albany, Kimberly Tobin, Westfield State College, Massachusetts
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Appendix C: Impact of Gang Membership
- Terence P. Thornberry, State University of New York, Albany, Marvin D. Krohn, State University of New York, Albany, Alan J. Lizotte, State University of New York, Albany, Carolyn A. Smith, State University of New York, Albany, Kimberly Tobin, Westfield State College, Massachusetts
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Frontmatter
- Terence P. Thornberry, State University of New York, Albany, Marvin D. Krohn, State University of New York, Albany, Alan J. Lizotte, State University of New York, Albany, Carolyn A. Smith, State University of New York, Albany, Kimberly Tobin, Westfield State College, Massachusetts
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Index
- Terence P. Thornberry, State University of New York, Albany, Marvin D. Krohn, State University of New York, Albany, Alan J. Lizotte, State University of New York, Albany, Carolyn A. Smith, State University of New York, Albany, Kimberly Tobin, Westfield State College, Massachusetts
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Appendix A: Delinquency Indices
- Terence P. Thornberry, State University of New York, Albany, Marvin D. Krohn, State University of New York, Albany, Alan J. Lizotte, State University of New York, Albany, Carolyn A. Smith, State University of New York, Albany, Kimberly Tobin, Westfield State College, Massachusetts
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The delinquency indices are based on a series of questions that begin with the phrase, “Since we interviewed you last time, have you …”
General Delinquency
Run away from home?
Skipped classes without an excuse?
Lied about your age to get into some place or to buy something (for example, lying about your age to get into a movie or buy alcohol)?
Hitchhiked a ride with a stranger?
Carried a hidden weapon?
Been loud or rowdy in a public place where someone complained and you got in trouble?
Begged for money or things from strangers?
Been drunk in a public place?
Damaged, destroyed, marked up, or tagged somebody else's property on purpose?
Set fire on purpose or tried to set fire to a house, building, or car?
Avoided paying for things, like a movie, taking bus rides, using a computer, or anything else?
Gone into or tried to go into a building to steal or damage something?
Tried to steal or actually stolen money or things worth $5 or less?
Tried to steal or actually stolen money or things worth $5 to $50?
Tried to steal or actually stolen money or things worth between $50 and $100?
Tried to steal or actually stolen money or things worth more than $100?
Tried to buy or sell things that were stolen?
Taken someone else's car or motorcycle for a ride without the owner's permission?
Stolen or tried to steal a car or other motor vehicle?
Forged a check or used fake money to pay for something?